Small self-powered systems, including wireless sensors and small robots currently under development, can use triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) and piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs) as prime power sources. TENGs and PENGs offer large open circuit voltages, low materials cost, ease of fabrication, and good energy conversion efficiencies. TENGs use triboelectricity, commonly called static electricity, to convert common mechanical […]

3D printing is the fabrication of a three-dimensional object under computer control, with one or more materials being added layer by layer. 3D printing, or additive manufacturing, is used across various electronics applications, including circuit boards, energy storage devices, actuators, and sensors. It can be implemented using a variety of technologies, including selective laser sintering […]

There are several differences between primary and secondary batteries. The most obvious is that primary batteries are single-use devices while secondary batteries can be recharged and used many times, but that’s not the only difference. This FAQ starts with a general overview of the differences between primary and secondary batteries; it will then look at…

Batteries are complex electrochemical and thermodynamic systems, and multiple factors impact battery performance. Of course, battery chemistry is at the top of the list. Still, factors such as charge and discharge rates, operating temperatures, storage conditions, physical construction details, and more come into play when understanding which battery best suits a specific application. To begin,…

A lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) battery (also known as Li-poly, lithium-poly, PLiON, and other names) is a rechargeable Li-ion battery with a polymer electrolyte in the liquid electrolyte used in conventional Li-ion batteries. There are a variety of LiPo chemistries available. All use a high conductivity gel polymer as the electrolyte. LiPos provide higher specific energies…

A lithium-ion capacitor (LIC) is a type of supercapacitor. It’s a hybrid between a Li-ion battery and an electric double-layer supercapacitor (ELDC). The cathode is activated carbon, the same as is found in an ELDC, while the anode consists of carbon material pre-doped with lithium ions, similar to those found in Li-ion batteries. LICs are…

Resistors, capacitors, inductors, and dc/dc converters can all be used in various topologies to provide cell balancing for battery packs. Cell balancing is needed to obtain the maximum performance since performance is limited by the weakest cell in the pack. Once the weakest cell is depleted, the pack stops delivering energy. The various cell balancing…

The first FAQs in this series have identified specific use cases and applications where robots can use batteries, fuel cells, and even supercapacitors as their prime power source. Are there applications for robots that can benefit from using energy harvesting and ambient energy as their prime power source? Yes. For example, small nanorobots can use…

So far, this series of FAQs has looked at battery options for mobile robots, the most common powering option for robots, and the benefits of fuel cell power robot platforms were reviewed, including extended run times and faster recharge rates compared with battery power. Supercapacitors (also called ultracapacitors) bring another unique set of benefits to…

This series of FAQs is looking at various technologies being used to power robots. The first FAQ focused on “battery options for mobile robots.” Following this look at fuel cell-powered robot platforms will be FAQs considering “where do supercapacitors fit in robots?” and “running robots on ambient energy.” This FAQ will begin by looking at…